AMAZING PENTATONIC GRACE and THE FINAL STAGE OF HUMAN CREATION ⁸²
Secondary Source Report about Authorities Original Research and References
http://www.pentatonicgrace.xyzedited 11/21/2018*p .3 to*p.5 change from⁸to⁸²
The abstract above described tha terms central to this report:
5. Modern Anatomical Cognitive Humans, Homo sapien-sapiens were Created and were present and accounted for approximately (~) 50,000-70,000 years ago.
6. Scientists believe the Pentatonic Scale, is and was the preferred, perceived, integrated, sensory communication signal, which is and was ‘encoded’ in all members of the Animal Kingdom beginning millions of years ago and continues today and includes Modern Anatomical Cognitive Humans, Homo sapien-sapiens.
Abstract: The fundamental, innate, harmonic, synchronized, auditory and vocal sounds and tones of the Animal Kingdom, from grunts, gobbles and groans to finally Homo sapien-sapiens, Modern Anatomic Cognitive Human, gab, language and song are the Pentatonic Scale.
The Pentatonic Scale, the preferred, perceived, integrated, sensory signal, was ‘encoded’ in all members of the Animal Kingdom millions of years ago and in accordance more recently in Human Brain Neuro-Anatomy and Neuro-Physiology for Human spirituality, religious, meditation and soulfulness, the Final Stage of Human Neurobiological Brain Creation.
Following auditory perception and integration, Pentatonic sounds are transduced to electric current and transmitted to encoded Neuro-Anatomical dendrites for neuron processing. Memeristors (mini transistor gatekeepers) in dendrite microtubules then filter and direct the signals toward their appropriate NeuroNetwork for conscious mindful action. René J. Muller, PhD 2008 interviewed prominent doctors and scientist for important answers concerning an emerging field of Neurotheology.
“Considering that the brain is increasingly being credited with having a role in everything we think, feel, and do, it was probably just a matter of time before it was postulated that religious belief has a neural substrate.” “The question of how the brain might be "hardwired" for spirituality has captured the interest of many investigators who have established careers in fields as different as neurology, theology, and neuroscience and spawned the new disciplines of neurotheology, neurons, and neurotransmitters.”1
Neurotheologians have concluded that the structure and function of the human brain predispose Humans to believe in God. They claim that the site of God's biological substrate is the limbic system, the vibratory love center, deep within the brain, which has long been known as the biological center for emotion. Rhawn Joseph, a prominent neurotheologian, proclaimed that the limbic system is dotted with "God neurons" and "God neurotransmitters."2
Neurotheologians refer to the 55 areas of the brain that have been associated with the limbic and other brain structures during functional MRI brain scans during religious meditation and conclude that if spiritual, religious and meditative praise and worship of God stimulates and triggers brain Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology, an inherent neural imperative to believe in God is inherent and fundamental in the first place.
Following praise and worship of God, if fMRI demonstrates the fundamental and inherent presence of that praise and worship of God in the brain, the fundamental and inherent existence of God is the Neurology Diagnostic Imperative in the first place.
‘Functional Connectivity MRI (fCMRI) is similar to ‘fingerprinting’. Depending on the ‘fCMRI’ investigation design, investigators can determine if evidence of God is or was there inside the Human brain. [Using Connectome-based Predictive Modeling to Predict Individual Behavior from Brain Connectivity, by Xilin Shen, Emily S Finn, Dustin Scheinost, Monica D Rosenberg, Marvin M Chun, Xenophon Papademetris & R Todd Constable, Nature Protocols volume12, pp. 506–518 (2017)]
Depending on the ‘fCMRI’ investigation design, if similar ‘fCMRI fingerprints’ are recovered in the same individual Human brains, in the exact same brain locations, following Pentatonic music stimulations, Pentatonic music ‘fCMRI fingerprints’ recovery will mean that Pentatonic music is fundamentally and inherently connected to our God, who is or was therein, which is His final stage of Creation for that Human brain.
if verbal praise and worship and Amazing Grace piano harmonic chords leave the same ‘fCMRI fingerprints’ within the brain, the Neurology Diagnostic Imperatives are:
1. they both are fundamentally and inherently connected to each other
2. they both are fundamentally and inherently connected to our God
3. our God is Scientifically, not anecdotally, not historically, proven to exist, given, for the Neuroanatomy, as previously, scientifically determined and investigation controlled
a. the blood-brain-barrier is intact
b. ‘DNA genome fingerprints’ were encoded and remained intact since the fertilization of each Human research subject’s life. ["Neurology, Technology, and the Diagnostic Imperative." By Nahm, Frederick K. D. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, vol. 44 no. 1, 2001, pp. 99-107. Project MUSE doi: 10.1353 /pbm .2001. 0015]
*Translated EEG-fMRI Music
“Music and language define us as human [1]. Emotional expression and communication, through language or non-linguistic artistic expression, are recognized as being strongly linked to health and sense of well-being [2]. “Therefore, as an artistic expression, music may represent the human mind or mood. Intensity is based the power law. With the rules defined in paper [12], the EEG music was obtained from the EEG data. The EEG-alone-music sounds reasonably well. Pitch and intensity, derived from the amplitude and the induced AP, were correlated significantly (Figure 6(c)–(d)). [12] (Conclusions/Significance: The sonification rules may identify the mental states of the brain, which provide a real-time strategy for monitoring brain activities and are potentially useful to neurofeedback therapy.[Wu D, Li CY, Yao DZ. Scale-free music of the brain PLoS One.2009;4(6):e5915, 2009 Jun 15.]
EEG-alone-music was found to differ and be less effective than EEG-fMRI-together-music as determined by mathematical equations and translation rules. 2 EEG-fMRI music, with newly defined translation rules was obtained from the EEG-fMRI data. The correlation coefficient between pitch and intensity of the EEG-fMRI music is more precise than the case in EEG-alone-music and more comparable to man-made music
“This research concluded that the signal translations from improved EEG-fMRI-together-music better reflected the internal functional of brain activities under the power law framework. “Brain music as determined in this research is one of the human brain's intelligence products. Brain music embodies secrets of the brain in an artistic style. The resulted EEG-fMRI music better mimics the sounds of man-made music. “Brain music provides the platform for scientist and artists to collaborate and understand secrets of the Human brain. “Brain music, translation of both brain EEG and fMRI signals to music, is a new interactive link between the human brain and man-made music.
“We hope the on-going progresses of the brain signals based music will properly unravel part of the truths in the brain, and then be used for clinical diagnosis and bio-feedback therapy in the future.” [Lu J, Wu D, Yang H, Luo C, Li C, Yao D. Scale-free brain-wave music from simultaneously EEG and fMRI recordings. PLoS One. 2012;7(11):e49773.]
“In this research, (Chinese) pentatonic scale was considered a musical filter and modified partial unusual intervals of pitch so that a reasonable musical consonance was conserved. Researchers played the pentatonic scale man-made music, recorded EEG waves and fMRI scans, computed the findings and translated the outcomes to Human Brain Music. “Compared to the (Western) heptatonic scale, the pentatonic scale showed stronger potential for listening to and discriminating brain activity: the intervals sounded more consonant and made the differences between brain stages more perceptible. “The reason the pentatonic scale sounds more harmonious might be that 5 notes in an octave lead to the reduction of dissonant intervals in the music.
“In terms of distinguishing rapid eye movement (REM) and slow-wave sleep (SWS), the “perfect consonances” class was significantly discernable using only the pentatonic scale. “The brain wave music derived by our EEG-music mapping rules suggests that the activities of the left and right hemispheres can be represented by ensemble music from two-channel EEG signals, and a (Chinese) pentatonic scale filter can make the ensemble music sound consonant. “The details of EEG parameters, such as amplitude, period, and lateralization were revealed. The proposed method can provide comfortable and long-term observation of EEG. It is a new aspect of perceiving brain activity and may be useful in clinical monitoring and biofeedback.” [Wu D, Li CY, Yao DZ. An ensemble with the Chinese pentatonic scale using electroencephalogram from both hemispheres. Neurosci Bull. 2013;29(5):581-7.]
Religion explains Genesis and the Holy Bible in religious language. TheSCIENTIFICALLY LITERATE CHRISTIANS explains Genesis and the Holy Bible in scientific language. Both deliver their message in the same ‘tone’ but different languages. EEG and fMRI Brain thinking (brain music) is more understandable when the man-made source is in pentatonic Scale languages, because all human brains understand pentatonic language inherently, because it is genetically encoded. it’s not the spoken or singing language but the tone, harmony, consonance, sound wave frequencies that are communicable and more precisely EEG-fMRI translate-able.
“I love you and I am thankful” said pentatonically are more thought provoking to prehistoric or modern anatomical cognitive ‘cave mates’ or ‘nest mates’, because the Pentatonic Scale is the Animal Kingdom’s universal tone, as scientifically recorded and discovered by EEG-fMRI translation on Human subjects (per citation), and the Pentatonic Scale is in sync with our universe’s consciousness.
When singing “Amazing Grace” on Thanksgiving, even a “bird on a wire” will understand Thankfulness....”for I was blind and now I see.” Importantly, life is not about the balance of fear and faith, hope and charity on a wire, but life is about a Human a conviction, being who a Human is supposed to become, security with one’s Human ‘Ego Ideal’ and no fear of death. * Ilia Delio, who is a member of the Roman Catholic Franciscan Order and holds doctoral degrees in pharmacology and historical theology explained that a 'God module' deeply involves the Human brain. Delio states the ‘God Module Network’ appears “bound-up with human substrate matter. The brain and Holy Spirit are mutually related, if not one and the same."3
Maybe Humans have been looking for scientific evidence of our God and His Word in all the wrong places. Scientific Evidenced Based Christians, members of the SCIENTIFICALLY LITERATE CHRISTIANS believe the evidence has been encoded in Human brains known as the ‘God Module Network’ a subnetwork of Mental Consciousness for ‘Human spiritual, religious, meditation, faith and belief practices, experiences and realities and Soulfulness.
Scientists reveal that the ‘God Module Network’ a subnetwork of Mental Consciousness for ‘Human spiritual, religious, meditation, faith and belief practices, experiences and realities and Soulfulness, is just above the human nose, deep in the brain and hardwired with special senses to receive and process Pentatonic communication signals, which span the entire Universe and everything within, grow and develop the Neuroplastic brain process in the direction of God. Pentatonic communication signals are among the desired signal consonance allowed passage and distribution by the brain microtubule memristors.
David L. Smith, a Roman Catholic priest and clinical psychologist, asks: "If 'God neurons' or 'God neurotransmitters actually exist in the brain, are they defective in the agnostic and absent in the atheist?"4 Other scientists answer that the innate, fundamental neuroanatomy is encoded and Created within 99.99% of Human brains, hypothetically. The difference is willfulness, the on-off switch. The inactive neuroanatomy must be willfully activated, stimulated and triggered by ‘each and every’ individual for processing, integration and growth. Humans weren’t Created to live in a Garden of Eden, but overcome adversity and adapt, because “what don’t kill them will make them stronger” i.e. “draw closer to the LORD” in United Baptist terms.Doctors and scientists have experientially confirmed with certainty that this encoded ‘God Module Network’ a subnetwork of Mental Consciousness for ‘Human spiritual, religious, meditation, faith and belief practices, experiences and realities and Soulfulness, with neurons and neurotransmitters exists.
fMRI investigations have facilitated proof. Conformational fMRI brain scan studies are now commonplace. New research is accurate and evidence is available. The following quote from an article published in Zygon, the official journal of neurotheology, typifies the kind of language and reasoning found in neurotheological texts. The authors of a recent report are Eugene d'Aquili, MD (a psychiatrist) and Andrew Newberg, MD (a neurologist).5 Andrew Newberg, MD, is an associate professor in the Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, with secondary appointments in the Dept of Psychiatry and Religious Studies. Newberg is actively involved in neuroimaging research projects, including the study of the neurophysiological correlates of spirituality, religiousness, meditation and morbidity and mortality therapies. Dr Newberg's research now largely focuses on how brain anatomy of the encoded ‘God Module Network’ a subnetwork of Mental Consciousness for ‘Human spiritual, religious, meditation, faith and belief practices, experiences and realities and Soulfulness, and brain function and is associated with various mental states i.e. relationship between brain function, religious experiences, other unknowns
He has authored several books, including Why God Won't Go Away: Brain Science and the Biology of Belief (Ballantine/Random House, 2001) and coauthor with Eugene G. d'Aquili, MD, of The Mystical Mind: Probing the Biology of Religious Experience (Fortress Press, 1999). His most recent book is How God Changes Your Brain, with coauthor Mark Waldman (Ballantine Books, 2009). [The brain and the biology of belief: An interview with Andrew Newberg, MD. Interview by Nancy Nachman-Hunt. Andrew Newberg, Adv Mind Body Med.2009 Spring;24(1):32–36.] Utilizing fMRI studies, Dr. Newberg identified 55 regions of the brain stimulated and triggered with spiritual, religious and meditative practices.
Dr. Dean Hamer, PhD, a behavioral geneticist who has worked at the National Cancer Institute (NCI) and the NIH, took the neurotheologians' proposal that religious belief has a neural substrate, neuroanatomy. Hamer questioned: If God is embedded in our genes, which are the genes? “If genomes are the answer, it would mean that people are not only wired to believe in God but genetically programmed to do so as well.” In 2004, Hamer published The God Gene: How Faith Is Hardwired Into Our Genes,6 which was showcased in a Time cover story on neurotheology.7
Hamer collaborated with George Uhl, MD, PhD, a neurobiologist at the National Institute of Drug Abuse, who studies generic vulnerability to substance abuse. Uhl had found some new variants in a gene called vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2). This gene makes a protein for the vesicles that package neurotransmitters in the presynaptic neuron and later release these signaling chemicals into the neuronal synapse. Uhl had shown that the VMAT2 polymorphism was highly associated with other VMAT2 mutations and could be used as a marker for the gene.
According to Hamer, "VMAT2 controls the flow of monoamines within the brain" and promotes a "higher consciousness."6 The packaging vesicles, besides delivering neurotransmitters to the synaptic cleft for signal transduction, protect these molecules from degradation by enzymes, particularly monoamine oxidases, which remove the neurotransmitter once the neuron fires and the signal has been sent. Hamer claimed that the VMAT2 polymorphism holds the key to understanding spirituality. In searching out the God gene, Hamer wanted to know if consciousness can be explained "scientifically. "The 'bottom up' explanations for religious belief and spirituality offered by neurotheologians and neurogeneticists derive from a science that sees human lives largely determined by biological factors.
- References:
1. Neurotheology. Wikipedia. August 13, 2007. en. wikipedia.org/wiki/neurotheology. Accessed August 14, 2007.
2. Joseph R. The limbic system and the soul: evolution and the neuroanatomy of religious experience. Zygon. 2001;36:105-136.
3. Delio I. Are we wired for God? New Theol Rev. 2003; 16:31-43.
4. Smith DL. Does God slumber deep in the belly of the brain? A critique of neurotheology. Josephinum J Theol. 2006;13:81-99.
5. d'Aquili EG, Newberg AB. Religious and mystical states: a neuropsychological model. Zygon. 1993;28: 177-200.
6. Hamer D. The God Gene: How Faith Is Hardwired Into Our Genes. New York: Doubleday; 2004.
7. Kluger J. Is God in our genes? Time. 2004;164:62-70.
8. Sabol SZ, Nelson ML, Fisher C, et al. A genetic association for cigarette smoking behavior. Health Psychol. 1999;18:7-13.
9. Cloninger CR, Svrakic DM, Przybeck TR. A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993;50:975-990.
10. Griffiths RR, Richards WA, McCann U, Jesse R. Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance. Psychopharmacology. 2006;187:268-283.
11. Ellis RD. Phenomenology-friendly neuroscience: the return to Merleau-Ponty as psychologist. Hum Stud. 2006;29:33-55.
12. McHugh PR, Slavney PR. The Perspectives of Psychiatry. 2nd ed. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press; 1998:11-13
- [Neurotheology: Are We Hardwired for God? By René J. Muller, PhD, May 2, 2008 Volume: 25 Issue: 6 Psychiatry Times]
Recently, scientists concluded that special neurobiological and neurophysiological networks and neurotransmitters, neurochemicals and neuro-receptors signals are neuro-networked for Conspecific Responses, Dopamine neurotransmitters, Dopaminergic Networks, Euphoria, and Soulfulness, naming a few. Most probably Pentatonic acoustic tonal synchrony and harmony are transformed from Human spiritual, religious, meditation, faith, belief practices, experiences, realities and mindfulness neurophysiological correlates. Scientists posited that the Holy Spirit language is not French, German or English. Instead, the Holy Spirit language is an atomic and subatomic rhapsody of quantum fields, general relativity, biofields, and autopoiesis, conducted by our Creator and delivered by His e-Holy Spirit, which abides by the Energy Area Law. His e-Holy Spirit in conspecific Pentatonic harmonic tones are derived from across all species, cultures, societies, voices, instruments, dances, bells, drum beats, mothers’ hums and voices.
The e-Holy Spirit Symphony is distributed to the Human brain Wi-Fi and router systems, for the communication and reception of Holy Spirit energy waves, are turned on then displayed on Human brains’ minicomputer. Brain neuron microtubules, that receive, filter, transmit and store our Creator’s special electromagnetic energy field language.
Thereafter, the symphony outro, conclusion, is e-Soul Consciousness and most importantly, the iCloud of e-Soul Consciousness. Famed Dr Roger Penrose connected consciousness to the most basic level of measure in the universe i.e. a binary prefix, a unit prefix for multiples of units in data processing, data transmission, and digital information, notably the bit and the byte, to indicate multiplication by a power of 2.
“In early 1990, Penrose’s colleague, Dr. Stuart Hameroff, medical doctor, anesthesiologist and microtubule researcher, suggested to Penrose that tubulin components might be his qubits (quantum bits) and microtubules his quantum computer.
“They calculated the number of superpositioned tubulins required to reach OR threshold coinciding with physiological brain events such as gamma synchrony EEG, concluding that microtubules in hundreds of thousands of neurons would be required for 40 or more conscious moments, or frames per second.
“Gamma synchrony (30 to 90 cycles per second, hertz, or Hz) is the best measure of conscious awareness. End-of-life EEG brain activity just may be a sign of the soul. [Pokorný J, Hašek J, Jelínek F. Electromagnetic Field of Microtubules: Effects on Transfer of Mass Particles and Electrons. Journal of Biological Physics. 2005;31(3-4):501-514.] [Stuart Hameroff MD Professor, Departments of Anesthesiology and Psychology Director, Center for Consciousness Studies The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona www.quantumconsciousness.org] [www.deepakchopra.comDeepak Chopra MD Speaker, Author of over 55 books]
“Testimonials have proliferated from prominent physics researchers from institutions such as Cambridge University, Princeton University, and the Max Planck Institute for Physics in Munich claim that quantum mechanics predicts some version of "life after death." They assert that a person may possess a body-soul duality that is an extension of the wave-particle duality of subatomic particles. [The Cosmos News, Published on Dec 24, 2015]
Physicist, Sir Roger Penrose, believes, after death of the physical body, human consciousness lives on as the soul, which is stored in neuron brain cells, as a packet of quantum, subatomic energy.
Dr Hans-Peter Dürr, former head of the Max Planck Institute for Physics in Munich, has said: "What we consider the here and now, this world, it is actually just the material level that is comprehensible…."The beyond is an infinite reality that is much bigger…. “The body dies but the spiritual quantum field continues. In this way, I am immortal.”
“Dopamine neurotransmitter functions to conduct neurophysiological movement, memory, pleasurable reward, behavior, cognition, attention, inhibition of prolactin production, sleep, mood, learning. Neurotransmitter signaling molecules dopamine, neuropeptides and endorphins are divided into several types.
From righteous behavior, Pentatonic tones and harmonic energy trigger willful fulfillment and drive specific NeuroNetworks toward the meaning and purpose of life, which is the growth and development of the NeuroNetwork for e-Soul Consciousness.
Additional details describing the biologic basis for the inherent Pentatonic Scale follow beginning with Pentatonic biological rationale.
Why then should the Pentatonic preference exist? Although other explanations cannot be ruled out based on the data we have presented, for the reasons discussed in this section, we favor a biologically based preference for harmonic series as the most plausible explanation for the particular scales used to make music over history and across cultures. Humans prefer tone combinations that reflect the spectral characteristics of conspecific vocalizations. A small number of particular scales comprising five to seven tones or provides a biological rationale for this predilection.
Biologically based are a favored preference for harmonic series as the most plausible explanation for the particular scales used to make music over history and across cultures. Like any other sensory quality, the human ability to perceive tonal (i.e., periodically repeating) sound stimuli has presumably evolved because of its biological utility. In nature, such sound stimuli typically occur as harmonic series produced by objects that resonate when acted on by a force [19], [31].
Such resonances occur when, for example, wind or water forces air through a blowhole or some other accidental configuration but are most commonly produced by animal species that have evolved to produce periodic sounds for social communication and ultimately reproductive success (e.g., the sounds of stridulating insects, the vibrations produced by the songbird syrinx, and the vocalizations of many mammals).
Although all these harmonic stimuli are present in the human auditory environment, the vocalizations of other humans are presumably the most biologically relevant and frequently experienced.In humans, vocal stimuli arise in a variety of complex ways, not all of which are harmonic. Harmonic series depend on vocal fold vibrations and are characteristic of the “voiced speech” responsible for vowel sounds and some consonants [1].
Although the relative amplitudes of harmonics are altered by filtering effects of the supralaryngeal vocal tract resonances to produce different vowel phones, the frequencies of harmonics remain unchanged [op cit.]. In consequence, the presence of a harmonic series is a salient feature of human vocalizations and essential to human speech and language. It follows that the similarity of musical intervals to harmonic series provides a plausible biological basis for the worldwide human preference for a relatively small number of musical scales defined by their overall similarity to a harmonic series.
Several lines of evidence accord with this idea. First, humans and other primate species are specifically attracted to conspecific vocalizations, including those with harmonic and even specifically musical characteristics [32]–[38]. Second, the human pinna, ear canal and basilar membrane are all optimized to transmit human vocalizations, suggesting that the human sense of tonality co-evolved to respond to the stimuli generated by the vocal tract [31], [39], [40].
Third, a number of non-musical phenomena in tone perception including perception of the missing fundamental, pitch shift of the residue, spectral dominance and pitch strength can be explained by in terms of the specialization of the human auditory systems for processing vocal sounds [41]–[43]. These observations all support the idea that the musical scales used over human history have resulted from a preference for collections of dyads that most resemble a harmonic series, and therefore human vocalizations.
In support of this idea, non-human primates have been recently shown to respond affectively to music characterized by frequency ranges and prosody that are similar to their own vocalizations [44]. This evidence accords with the fact that most music, even purely instrumental music, is composed within the human vocal range, and some popular instruments (e.g., the violin) bear a timbral resemblance to the human voice [31].
Moreover, many musical traditions use tones that fall between formal scale tones: in Western music, glissandos involve continuous changes in pitch, blues music depends on “bending” guitar strings to blend the pitches of major and minor thirds, and classical Indian music employs microtonal intervals that fall between the scale tones of ragas [24]. These musical embellishments may reflect the continuous variations in fundamental frequencies that characterize speech prosody. Preferred meters and tempos may also parallel speech and other vocalizations in ways that do not involve tonality at all [6]. Thus while scale preferences seem to be based on the harmonic series that derive from vocal fold vibrations, other aspects of music may be favored because they resemble additional features of the human voice.
Although many of the highly ranked heptatonic and pentatonic scales in Tables 2 and and33have been widely used in Western music, some others have not. A possible explanation is that whereas all the modes shown in Figure 1 can be played using the same set of intervals, one or more additional intervals (e.g., a neutral second) would be necessary to play the other highly ranked but little used variations.
A scale that deserves special comment is the Locrian mode, which ranks much lower in Table 3 than the other modes. The Locrian mode is recognized in Western music theory but rarely used. While reasons cited for the infrequent use of the Locrian mode are its weak tonal center and dissonant tonic chord, it may be less desirable primarily because of the relatively low conformance of its intervals to a harmonic series and thus to the biological signature of voiced speech and other harmonic vocalizations.
Finally, although many of the widely used scales in music worldwide hold high ranks in Tables 2 and and3,3, scales that are used in the music of a few cultures do not. For example, the sléndro scale used in Javanese gamelan music comprises five approximately equally spaced tones over an octave [47], [48] but is not among the pentatonic scales with the highest mean percentage similarity to a harmonic series. A possible explanation in this case is that the metallophone instruments used by gamelan orchestras (e.g., bells and gongs that are idiosyncratic to a given geographical region) generate non-harmonic frequencies.
By the same token, only a few of the hundreds to thousands of classical Indian ragas are represented among the highly ranked pentatonic and heptatonic scales. However, nearly all the “parent” scales from which all ragas are derived are among the highly ranked heptatonic scales indicated by their Western names.
As the number of tones in a scale decreases, the similarity of the tone collection to the character of a harmonic series increases (compare the percentage similarity values of the top-ranked pentatonic and heptatonic scales. Conversely, dividing octaves into a larger number of intervals leads to tonal collections that meet this criterion less well. Thus under the hypothesis that listeners prefer tone collections whose spectra are on average more like a harmonic series, the inclusion of intervals that conform to this criterion relatively poorly would provide an upper bound on the number of preferred scale tones.
Melodies using heptatonic scales sometimes use only six out of the seven tones, and melodies using pentatonic scales often use passing tones not included in the scale structure as such [5]. Such compositions could also be interpreted as using six-note scales. Thus there is certainly nothing prohibitive about using a set of six tones to create music; they are simply not recognized as formally as their five- and seven-note counterparts in Western music theory.
Conclusions: The analyses we report here show that many of the relatively small number of scales that humans have preferred over history and across cultures comprise intervals that when considered as a set are maximally similar to harmonic series. The basis for these results may be a preference for the biologically significant spectral features that characterize conspecific vocalizations.
References: 1. Zwicker E, Fastl H. Germany: Springer-Verlag; 1999. Psychoacoustics.
19. Helmholtz H. New York: Dover; 1877. On the sensations of tone. Ellis A J, translator.
31. Pierce JR. New York: Scientific American Books; 2000. The science of musical sound.
32. Butterfield EC, Siperstein GN. Influence of contingent auditory stimulation upon non-nutritional suckle. In: Bosma JF, editor. Third symposium on oral sensation and perception: The mouth of the infant. Springfield IL: Charles C Thomas; 1970. pp. 313–334.
33. Schellenberg EG, Trehub SE. Natural music intervals: Evidence from infant listeners. Psychological Science. 1996;7:272–277.
34. Zentner MR, Kagan J. Infants' perception of consonance and dissonance in music. Infant Behavior and Development. 1998;21:483–492.
35. Vouloumanos A, Werker JF. Listening to language at birth: Evidence for a bias for speech in neonates. Developmental Science. 2007;10:159–164. [PubMed]
36. Fitch WT. The biology and evolution of music: a comparative perspective. Cognition. 2006;100:173–215. [PubMed]
37. Brown S. The ‘music language’ model of music evolution. In: Wallin NL, Merker B, Brown S, editors. The origins of music.Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT Press; 2000. pp. 271–300.
38. McDermott J, Hauser M. The origins of music: innateness, uniqueness and evolution. Music Percept. 2005;23:29–59.
39. Plomp R. The ear as a frequency analyzer. J Acoust Soc Am. 1964;36:1628–1636.
41. Kameoka A, Kuriyagawa M. Consonance theory part I: Consonance of dyads. J Acoust Soc Am. 1969a;45:1451–1459.[PubMed]
42. Kameoka A, Kuriyagawa M. Consonance theory, part II: Consonance of complex tones and its computation method. J Acoust Soc Am. 1969b;45:1460–1469. [PubMed]
43. Schwartz DA, Purves D. Pitch is determined by naturally occurring periodic sounds. Hear Res. 2004;194:31–46. [PubMed]
[Gill KZ, Purves D. A biological rationale for musical scales. PLoS One. 2009;4(12):e8144. Published 2009 Dec 3. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008144]
Abstract: “This study reports the occurrence of ‘tonal synchrony’ as a new dimension of early mother–infant interaction synchrony. The findings are based on a tonal and temporal analysis of vocal interactions between 15 mothers and their 3-month-old infants during 5 min of free-play in a laboratory setting. In total, 558 vocal exchanges were identified and analyzed, of which 84% reflected harmonic or pentatonic series. Another 10% of the exchanges contained absolute and/or relative pitch and/or interval imitations. The total durations of dyads being in tonal synchrony were normally distributed (M = 3.71, SD = 2.44).
Vocalizations based on harmonic series appeared organized around the major triad, containing significantly more simple frequency ratios (octave, fifth and third) than complex ones (non-major triad tones). Tonal synchrony and its characteristics are discussed in relation to infant-directed speech, communicative musicality, pre-reflective communication and its impact on the quality of early mother–infant interaction and child's development.” [Tonal synchrony in mother–infant interaction based on harmonic and pentatonic series MartineVan Puyveldea PolVanfleterenab GerritLootsa c SaraDeschuyffeleera BartVinckd Wolfgang Jacqueta Werner Verhelsta; Infant Behavior and Development Volume 33, Issue 4, December 2010, Pages 387-400]
Future Evolutionary Speculations [Fred H. Previc] There are 2 major issues will be addressed:
1. whether human intelligence will continue to evolve
2. and whether the intellectual gap between animals and humans will continue to narrow.
The physical size and shape of the human brain is not necessary for human intelligence, and it is even less clear whether the anatomical structure of the human brain is sufficient for our intellectual accomplishments.
Anatomically modern human brains date back well over 100,000 years, but human artwork dates to only 30,000 years, human agriculture to 10,000 years, and human writing only to about 5000 years. It may be concluded, therefore, that the present-day accomplishments of the human intellect are due more to cultural forces than biological ones. Although larger human brains are probably metabolically sustainable, there are arguably no selection pressures favoring them at the present time; indeed, the human brain has decreased slightly in size over the past 100,000 years (Lieberman, 1998).
It is more conceivable that the relative percentage of dopamine in our
brains could continue to increase, but there is no evidence that such is occurring.
Indeed, our diets are decreasing in the amount of protein relative to saturated fat, with the fat content rising from an estimated 20–25% in the late Stone Age to almost 40% presently (Eaton, 1992). Moreover, Bortz (1985) argues that modern humans should perform strenuous aerobic exercising at least three times per week to approach the fitness regime of our hunter-gatherer ancestors, which is typically not the case. Indeed, the dietary and fitness problems that afflict modern-day humans undoubtedly contribute to the premature aging of the human brain and the specific reduction in the activity of key transmitters such as dopamine (Dustman, Ruhling, Russell,Shearer, Borekat, Shigeoka, Wood, & Bradford, 1984; Gilbert, 1995). 21
It is doubtful that dopaminergic activity could in any case be substantially in-creased over current optimal levels without deleterious consequences, giventhe elevated dopaminergic–noradrenergic and dopaminergic–serotonergicratios found in schizophrenia (Previc, 1996) and the possible link between. 21Bortz (1985) believes that modern-day humans are ‘‘playing a dangerous game with our [physiological] heritage’’. DOPAMINE AND INTELLIGENCE 333high intelligence (and especially creativity) and mental illness (Goodwin & Jamison, 1990, Chap. 14; Horrobin, 1998). 22
Regardless of whether or not human intellectual capacity has alreadyreached its pinnacle, nonhuman machine intelligence will (and already has,in many instances) exceed the analytical and computational skills of the lefthemisphere, which most dramatically distinguish human intelligence fromthat of other advanced species.
Computers, for example, arguably have more parallel processing capabilities, faster baud rates, and greater working memory (‘‘windowing’’) than humans, and exceed us in computational abilities, chess-playing, generativity, etc. Even in the case of language, advanced computer systems can now ‘‘comprehend’’ high complex grammatical phrases using probabilistic strategies (Seidenberg, 1997).
It is only in our ability to tap into the purportedly more ‘‘primitive’’ abilities of the right hemisphere; as in visuo-manipulative skills (LeDoux et al., 1977), certain types of‘‘creativity’’(Bogen & Bogen, 1988; Hoppe, 1988; Miran & Miran, 1984), and nonliteralverbal communication (Bryan, 1988), that humans will remainunsurpassed in the foreseeablefuture In contrast to the limits on further human intellectual evolution, the presenttheory implies that animal intelligence may be capable of greatly increasingin thefuture. If a host of separate ‘‘hardwired’’ phenomena (e.g., cerebrallateralization, brain size, convolutedness, etc.) differentiated human intelligence from that of our closest primate relations, then it would seem a verydaunting task to raise animal intelligence toward a level approaching humans.
If, however, the above phenomena can be traced to a few simplinfluences (e.g., altered calcium metabolism, increased dopaminergic trans-mission, etc.) or are largely irrelevant to the achievements of the humanintellect, then the eventual elevation of animal intelligence into the humanrange may be more easily accomplished than is currently believed. Even now, the analytical prowess of nonhumans has become more widely recognized as greater numbers of animals are tested and those among them withespecially high aptitudes are documented—e.g., the Pan bonobo Kanzi (Sav-age-Rumbaugh & Rumbaugh, 1993) and the African Grey parrot Alex (Pepperberg, 1990).
Almost all of the ‘‘qualitative’’ intellectual differences between the apes and humans have long since fallen (Ettlinger, 1984), as have 22 Although a recent review (Waddell, 1998) concluded that most studies have not found a link between intelligence and mental illness, 9 of 24 studies listed in that article that did show such a link were mostly recent ones that examined a specific link between creativity and mental illness. One way to ensure that excessive dopaminergiclevels will not contributeto mental stress would be to stimulate the non-extrapersonal neurochemical systems—namely, the serotonergic and noradrenergic ones(Previc, 1998). These latter systems are critical to emotional behavior (Tucker & Williamson, 1984) and generally serve as a counterweight to excessive dopaminergic CNS activity (Previc, 1996; 1998). For example, vestibular stimulation (e.g., rocking) and nurturing ininfancy purportedly lead to elevated CNS noradrenalinelevels and improved psychological health in adults (Kraemer, 1992) and most of the purportedly unique perceptual features of human speech and language (Kluender, 1990). It is conceivable that ethically acceptable procedures such as increased dietary tyrosine content and arranged mating could further narrow the gap between chimpanzee intelligence and that of humans.If successful, efforts to elevate animal intelligence could greatly extend thelimits of archaeological, genetic, and other anthropological findings in recapturing our evolutionary past.
Summary; In this section, the role of dopamine in human evolution was reviewed byhighlighting its role in physical endurance activity. An expansion of dopaminergic activity would havebestowed upon the early hominids a thermal advantage that allowed chase-hunting to be effective in the African savannas during the late Pliocene era. In the official timescale of the ICS, the Pliocene is subdivided into two stages. From youngest to oldest they are: Piacenzian (3.600–2.58 Ma million years ago) Zanclean (5.333–3.600 Ma million years ago)
The Piacenzian is sometimes referred to as the Late Pliocene, whereas the Zanclean is referred to as the Early Pliocene. In the system of North American Land Mammal Ages (NALMA) include Hemphillian (9–4.75 Ma), and Blancan (4.75–1.806 Ma). The Blancan extends forward into the Pleistocene. South American Land Mammal Ages (SALMA) include Montehermosan (6.8–4.0 Ma), Chapadmalalan (4.0–3.0 Ma) and Uquian (3.0–1.2 Ma).
This increase in dopamine levels could have been stimulated by calcium mechanisms and could have contributed to increased GH (Growth Hormone) levels in the brain. The dopaminergic–GH link, partly explains why increases in brain size, height, and dopamine activity could all have coincided during human evolution, even though only the dopaminergic rise may be causally linked to the increase in analytic intelligence.Other animals such as cetaceans and avian that have large home ranges andexpanded ‘‘extra personal’’ environments also appear to exhibit good abstractconceptual skills and high levels of CNS dopamine. Because of our evolutionaryadaptation to thermal and other endurance-related stress, and necessary forhumans to continue to stimulate those adaptive physiological mechanisms in order for high CNS dopaminergic levels to be maintained in the future.
GENERAL SUMMARY: This paper has put forth a theory that links the evolution ofhumanintelligence to an expansion of CNS dopaminergic systems that was driven byvariousphysiological adaptations to the changing ecology of the Eastern and Southern African Savannas during the late Pliocene era. This theory has two major tenets associated withit. The first of these is that dopamine is the principal neurotransmitter involved in abstractintellectual behavior and language, by virtue of its critical role in six key processes:
The second tenet is that dopamine is essential to the physical endurance (and especially thermal tolerance) that ensured the survival of our hominid ancestors in Eastern and Southern Africa during the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene eras. Many of the most distinctive CNS and skeletal features of humans that evolved during the past several million years—including a vertical elongation of the body (including the cranium), an increase in brain size and convolutedness, and the emergence of cerebral lateralization, may all derive either directly from the expansion or lateralization of dopamine or indirectly from processes that were associated with it (e.g., changes in calcium metabolism).
DOPAMINE AND INTELLIGENCE
The emergence of distinctive neuroanatomical and other anatomical features of modern humans may be less directly linked to our advanced intellectual capabilities than the rise ofdopamine. By focusing on the neurochemical basis of intelligence, this theory can explain the pockets of advanced intelligence in widely diverged animal lineages that possess very different physical brain sizes and structures. It also offers a glimpse into the future evolution of human intelligence and particularly the threats to it caused by deviations from the dietary and exercise regimes that may have originally fostered the dopaminergic expansion in our hominid ancestors. [Previc FH. Dopamine and the origins of human intelligence. Brain Cogn 41: 299-350) in Brain and Cognition 41(3):299-350 · January 2000 [ PubMed] [Future Evolutionary Speculations [Fred H. Previc}
Homo sapiens are the Anatomically modern humans. Anatomically modern humans begin to appear in the fossil record in Ethiopia some 200,000 years ago.[182] According to the recent African origins hypothesis, from around 60,000 – 50,000 years ago[185] a group of humans left Africa and began migrating to occupy the rest of the world, carrying language and symbolic culture with them.[186]182. Fleagle, John G.; Assefa, Zelalem; Brown, Francis H.; Shea, John J. (2008). "Paleoanthropology of the Kibish Formation, southern Ethiopia: Introduction". Journal of Human Evolution. 55 (3): 360–5. 183. Henshilwood, C. S.; d'Errico, F.; Yates, R.; Jacobs, Z.; Tribolo, C.; Duller, G. A. T.; Mercier, N.; Sealy, J. C.; Valladas, H.; Watts, I.; Wintle, A. G. (2002). "Emergence of modern human behavior: Middle Stone Age engravings from South Africa". Science. 295: 1278–1280. 184. Henshilwood, C. S. and B. Dubreuil 2009. Reading the artifacts: gleaning language skills from the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa. In R. Botha and C. Knight (eds), The Cradle of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 41–61.185. Minkel, J. R. (2007-07-18). "Skulls Add to "Out of Africa" Theory of Human Origins: Pattern of skull variation bolsters the case that humans took over from earlier species". Scientific American.com. 1086. Chris Stringer, 2011. The Origin of Our Species. London: Penguin
Language is processed in 2 pathways in the human brain: the auditory ventral stream and auditory dorsal stream. The auditory ventral stream begins in the anterior superior temporal gyrus (aSTG), which projects to the anterior superior temporal sulcus (aSTS), middle temporal gyrus (MTG) and Temporal pole (TP). These regions then project to the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). This pathway is responsible for sound recognition. The auditory dorsal stream begins in the posterior superior temporal gyrus (pSTG), which projects to the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS), Sylvian parieto-temporal junction (Spt), and inferior parietal lobule (IPL). These regions then also project to the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). This pathway is responsible for sound localization and for the articulation of speech. [Modified with permission from: Poliva, O. (2016). From Mimicry to Language: A Neuroanatomically Based Evolutionary Model of the Emergence of Vocal Language. Frontiers in neuroscience, 10, 307] [KarinaCor]
I cannot doubt that language owes its origin to the imitation and modification, aided by signs and gestures, of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals, and man's own instinctivecries. [Charles Darwin, 1871. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex[34]] Human fMRI studies reported finding areas homologous to the monkey mirror neuronsystem in the inferior frontal cortex, close to Broca's area, one of the language regions of the brain. Mirror neurons have been said to have the potential to provide a mechanism for action-understanding, imitation-learning, and the simulation of other people's behavior.[82] This hypothesis is supported by some cytoarchitectonic homologies between monkey premotorarea F5 and human Broca's area.[83] Rates of vocabulary expansion link to the ability of children to vocally mirror non-words and so to acquire the new word pronunciations. Such speech repetition occurs automatically, quickly[84] and separately in the brain to speech perception.[85][86]
The history of Africa begins with the emergence of hominids, archaic humans and at least 200,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) who 1sr stood on 2 feet, in East Africa.
The earliest known (Homo sapiens) recorded history arose in the Kingdom of Kush,[1] and later in Ancient Egypt, the Sahel, the Maghreb and the Horn of Africa.Archaeological evidence before the Out of Africa theory was generally accepted, but there was no consensus on where the human species evolved and, consequently, where modern human behavior arose. Now, African archaeology has discovered the origins of humanity. Since human expansion intoEurope around 48,000 years ago is generally accepted as already "modern",[18] thequestion becomes whether behavioral modernity appeared in Africa well before 50,000years ago, as a late Upper Paleolithic "revolution" which prompted migration out of Africa, or arose outside Africa and diffused back.
Using multiple dating techniques, the archeological site was confirmed to be around 77,000 years old.[30] Beads and other personal ornamentation have been found from Morocco which might be as much as 130,000 years old; as well, the Cave of Hearths in South Africa has yielded a number of beads significantly before 50,000 years ago.[2]Humans in North Africa (Nazlet Sabaha, Egypt) are known to have dabbled in chert mining, as early as ~100,000 years ago, for the construction of stone tools.[31][32] [Wikipedia]
Despite differences such as a heavier brow and more oblong shape, Neanderthal skulls (left) housed brains similar to our own in volume. Pascal Goetgheluck/Science Source
In 1856, quarry workers inadvertently shoveled some bones out of a cave and 65 feet down the steep slopes of Neander Valley, Germany. The bones were human, but not quite: The limbs were thick, the ribs unusually rounded and the partial skull had a protruding brow and oblong shape. Geologist William King named it Homo neanderthalensis, the first scientifically named fossil hominin. In 1864, in the Quarterly Journal of Science, King speculated the creature’s “thoughts and desires … never soared beyond those of the brute.”
Homo sapien neanderthalis were, on average, shorter than Homo sapien-sapiens.Since then, researchers have recovered bones from about 350 Neanderthals, 40,000 to 200,000 years old, from much of Eurasia. New technologies have probed Neanderthal dental plaque and DNA, illuminating their diets, diseases and genetic code.[Duke University anthropologist Steven E. Churchill]. Genetic studies have confirmed that Neanderthals were our kissing cousins, evolutionarily speaking. Homo sapien neanderthalensis and Homo sapien-sapiens descended from the same group of ancestors, likely in Africa, over 520,000 years ago. Some members of this population migrated to Europe, where they evolved into Neanderthals, while those who remained in Africa gave rise to modern humans. During this period of geographic separation, the lineages were on their way to becoming different species, accumulating genetic differences over many generations, which would have eventually prevented interbreeding. But before that occurred, the groups repeatedly intermingled during several periods as modern humans spread to Eurasia, beginning around 100,000 years ago.
Short and muscular, Neanderthals had bodies adapted to Ice Age Europe. Their craniums were as large as contemporaneous H. sapien sapiens and Neanderthals made complex weapons, buried their dead and used a range of resources, from medicinal plants to feathers from birds of prey. TThey were “intelligent, well adapted and flexible,” says April Nowell, a prehistoric archaeologist at Canada's University of Victoria. Yet Neanderthals may have been differently intelligent: proficient at utilitarian tasks, but deficient in social and aesthetic sensibilities. Because Neanderthals rarely made symbolic objects, like beads, some anthropologists argue they were incapable of symbolic thought or language. Others disagree and note that Neanderthals had many possible adaptations for speech, including sharing a genetic variant with us that’s linked to language ability.Neanderthal were in the process of becoming distinct species, but not quite in that position at that time.
First were discovered Neander Valley, or Neanderthal, the word for valley. When Germany standardized spelling in the early 20th century, thal became tal. While the formal scientific name remains Homo neanderthalensis, scholars diverge on the colloquial, writing Neandertal or NeanderthalIn 2016, a genetic study of more than 50 Homo sapiens fossils 7,000 to 45,000 years old showed the proportion of Neanderthal DNA in our Homo sapien-sapiens species diminished over time. This pattern suggests that most Neanderthal genes were harmful to modern humans and were weeded from our gene pool: Individuals with those Neanderthal genes were less likely to survive and reproduce. Some Neanderthal DNA persists today, comprising roughly 2 % of the genomes of all non-Africans, but it’s generally confined to “junk” regions that do not contain vital genes.
The youngest conclusively dated Neanderthal fossils and artifacts clock in at around 40,000 years old. Researchers have put forth a range of possible explanations for their demise, including periods of extreme cold, a volcanic super-eruption or competition with a whole rogues’ gallery of carnivores, from scimitar cats to cave lions, that kept Neanderthal populations small. Other even less likely hypotheses include illnesses similar to mad cow disease, spread through cannibalism.However, most scholars believe modern humans played a role. “Neanderthals go extinct right at the time modern humans get there,” says Churchill. “I don’t think it’s a coincidence.”
Although Neanderthals had survived previous encounters with modern humans migrating from Africa, the wave that arrived roughly 45,000 years ago was different: They came armed with stone projectile points that could be shot long distances. Neanderthals, like earlier H. sapien-apiens, made thicker points, better for thrusting spears used at close range. Neanderthals may have already been on the brink of extinction. For at least 80,000 years before their end, Neanderthals had extremely low genetic diversity, suggesting they were a small population heading toward extinction.
Add competition from projectile-wielding modern humans, plus harsh environmental conditions and threats like cave lions, and you have “just a whole bunch of factors coming together that over time lead to their demise,” says Nowell, “a perfect storm.” [Neanderthals, Our kissing cousins were close kin, By Bridget Alex|Monday, September 17, 2018, FROM THE JULY/AUGUST 2018 ISSUE, Discover]Interestingly, the Neanderthal left ‘out of Africa’ 300,000 years ago with the ears and audio phonic anatomy for Pentatonic sounds, tones, music and languages from within the Animal Kingdom, but departed without the anatomy for speech.
By all accounts the Homo sapien-neanderthalis were speechless with only grunts and groans. No evidence exists for their speech. But they miraculously communicated, it appears, with Pentatonic 5 note large bird bone flutes for warning, survival and socials, mimicking neighboring fowls and such.
Archeologists recently discovered 40,000-year-old Pentatonic bone flutes, Neanderthal bones and remains in remote cave near Neander Valley, Germany (see above p.22) Neander Valley, Germany. These remarkable finds are evidence concerning the essence of both Homo sapiens inherent Pentatonic neurobiology and their Neurobiological rationale. Homo sapien-sapiens’ anatomy was previously described. Please review.Hominids are a member of a group of humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orang-utangs, or an early form of one of these.
The Hominidae, whose members are known as great apes or hominids, are a taxonomic family of primates that includes eight extant species in four genera: Pongo, the Bornean, Sumatran and Tapanuli orangutan; Gorilla, the eastern and western gorilla; Pan, the common chimpanzee and the bonobo; and Homo, which includes modern humans and its extinct relatives (e.g., the Neanderthal), and ancestors, such as Homo erectus.[1]
The current, 21st-century meaning of "hominid" includes all the great apes including humans.
Within the taxon Hominidae, a number of extant and known extinct, that is, fossil, genera are grouped with the humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas in the subfamily Homininae; others with orangutans in the subfamily Ponginae (see classification graphic below). The most recent common ancestor of all Hominidae lived roughly 14 million years ago,[5] when the ancestors of the orangutans speciated from the ancestral line of the other three genera.[6] Those ancestors of the family Hominidae had already speciated from the family Hylobatidae (the gibbons), perhaps 15 million to 20 million years ago.[6][7]
References
- Groves, C.P. (2005). Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M., eds. Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 181–184. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
- Dawkins, R. (2005). The Ancestor's Tale (p/b ed.). London: Phoenix (Orion Books). p. 114. ISBN 978-0-7538-1996-8.
- Dawkins (2005), p. 126.
- Morton, Mary. "Hominid vs. hominin". Earth Magazine. Retrieved 17 July 2017.
- Andrew Hill; Steven Ward (1988). "Origin of the Hominidae: The Record of African Large Hominoid Evolution Between 14 My and 4 My". Yearbook of Physical Anthropology. 31 (59): 49–83. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330310505.
- Dawkins R (2004) The Ancestor's Tale.
- "Query: Hominidae/Hylobatidae". TimeTree. Temple University. 2015. Retrieved 28 December2017.
- Srivastava (2009). Morphology Of The Primates And Human Evolution. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 87. ISBN 978-81-203-3656-8. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- Chen, Feng-Chi; Li, Wen-Hsiung (2001-01-15). "Genomic Divergences between Humans and Other Hominoids and the Effective Population Size of the Common Ancestor of Humans and Chimpanzees". American Journal of Human Genetics. 68 (2): 444–456. doi:10.1086/318206. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 1235277. PMID 11170892.
- Wood and Richmond; Richmond, BG (2000). "Human evolution: taxonomy and paleobiology". Journal of Anatomy. 197 (Pt 1): 19–60.
Music’s Pentatonic Scale is known to trigger Hedonic hotspots, the pleasure centers of the brain, which are functionally linked. Activation of one hotspot results in the recruitment of the others. Inhibition of one hotspot results in the blunting of the effects of activating another hotspot.[10][11] Therefore, the simultaneous activation of every hedonic hotspot within the reward system is believed to be necessary for generating the sensation of euphoria.[12]
In neuroscience, the reward system is a collection of brain structures and neural pathways that are responsible for reward-related cognition, including associative learning (primarily classical conditioning and operant reinforcement), incentive salience (i.e., motivation and "wanting", desire, or craving for a reward), and positively-valenced emotions, particularly emotions that involve pleasure(i.e., hedonic "liking").[1][6]
The reward system is a group of neural structures responsible for incentive salience (i.e., motivation and "wanting", desire, or craving for a reward), associative learning (primarily positive reinforcement and classical conditioning), and positively-valenced emotions, particularly ones which involve pleasure as a core component (e.g., joy, euphoria and ecstasy).[1][6] Terms that are commonly used to describe behavior related to the "wanting" or desire component of reward include appetitive behavior, approach behavior, preparatory behavior, instrumental behavior, anticipatory behavior, and seeking.[10] Terms that are commonly used to describe behavior related to the "liking" or pleasure component of reward include consummatory behavior and taking behavior.[10]
Primary rewards are a class of rewarding stimuli which facilitate the survival of one's self and offspring, and include homeostatic (e.g., palatable food) and reproductive (e.g., sexual contact and parental investment) rewards.[1][7] Intrinsic rewards are unconditioned rewards that are attractive and motivate behavior because they are inherently pleasurable.[1] Extrinsic rewards (e.g., money or seeing one's favorite sports team winning a game) are conditioned rewards that are attractive and motivate behavior, but are not inherently pleasurable.[1][8]
Extrinsic rewards derive their motivational value as a result of a learned association (i.e., conditioning) with intrinsic rewards.[1] Extrinsic rewards may also elicit pleasure (e.g., euphoria from winning a lot of money in a lottery) after being classically conditioned with intrinsic rewards.[1]
Survival for most animal species depends upon maximizing contact with beneficial stimuli and minimizing contact with harmful stimuli. Reward cognition serves to increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction by causing associative learning, eliciting approach and consummatory behavior, and triggering positively-valenced emotions.[1] Thus, reward is a mechanism that evolved to help increase the adaptive fitness of animals.[9]
References:
1. Schultz W (2015). "Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data". Physiological Reviews. 95 (3): 853–951.
2. Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 364–375. .
3. Nestler EJ (December 2013). "Cellular basis of memory for addiction". Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 15 (4): 431–443
4. "Glossary of Terms". Mount Sinai School of Medicine. Department of Neuroscience. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
5. Volkow ND, Koob GF, McLellan AT (January 2016). "Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction". N. Engl. J. Med. 374 (4): 363–371.
6. Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015). "Pleasure systems in the brain". Neuron. 86 (3): 646–664
7. "Dopamine Involved In Aggression". Medical News Today. 15 January 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
8. Duarte, Isabel C.; Afonso, Sónia; Jorge, Helena; Cayolla, Ricardo; Ferreira, Carlos; Castelo-Branco, Miguel (1 May 2017). "Tribal love: the neural correlates of passionate engagement in football fans". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 12 (5): 718–728.
9. Kolb B, Whishaw IQ (2001). An Introduction to Brain and Behavior (1st ed.). New York: Worth. pp. 438–441
10.Salamone JD, Correa M (2012). "The Mysterious Motivational Functions of Mesolimbic Dopamine". Neuron. 76 (3): 470–485.
Pentatonic Music euphoria, ‘Frisson’ occur as a result of dancing to music, music-making, and listening to emotionally arousing music.[4][33][34] Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that the reward system plays a central role in mediating music-induced pleasure.[34][35] Pleasurable emotionally arousing music strongly increases dopamine neurotransmission in the dopaminergic pathways that project to the striatum (i.e., the mesolimbic pathway and nigrostriatal pathway).[33][34][35] Approximately 5% of the population experiences a phenomenon termed "musical anhedonia", in which individuals do not experience pleasure from listening to emotionally arousing music despite having the ability to perceive the intended emotion that is conveyed in passages of music.[35]
Brain-imaging studies have also suggested that chills activate reward-related brain regions, such as the ventral striatum, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventromedial prefrontal cortex 16,17. Furthermore, music chills are accompanied by rewarding dopamine release in the caudate nucleus and nucleus accumbens in the striatum18. Therefore, the experience of chills seems to produce physiological arousal and reward for the listener.However, in our view, cognitive processes, (50,000-70,000 yrs ago) are only one “slice of the pie”, and gamma oscillations may be more globally viewed as the overall emotional–motivational neurodynamics through which the SEEKING disposition is expressed, accompanied by a feeling of excitement/eurphoria (not ‘pleasure’) that is evolutionarily designed to achieve a diversity of useful outcomes evolutionary design of human and animal brains that has helped to promote our survival also has made us vulnerable to addiction
4.Cohen EE, Ejsmond-Frey R, Knight N, Dunbar RI (2010). "Rowers' high: behavioural synchrony is correlated with elevated pain thresholds". Biol. Lett. 6(1): 106–8.
33. Salimpoor VN, Benovoy M, Larcher K, Dagher A, Zatorre RJ (2011). "Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music". Nat. Neurosci. 14 (2): 257–262.
34. Mavridis IN (March 2015). "Music and the nucleus accumbens". Surg Radiol Anat. 37 (2): 121–125
35. Zatorre RJ (March 2015). "Musical pleasure and reward: mechanisms and dysfunction". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1337: 202–211.
Pentatonic Music goosebumps, particularly the hairs on the arms and neck is aka Piloerection and is the physical part of frisson. Frisson (French for 'shiver'), also known as aesthetic chills, musical chills, and colloquially as a skin orgasm,[1][2] is a psychophysiological response to rewarding auditory and/or visual stimuli that induces a pleasurable or otherwise positively-valanced affective state and transient paresthesia (skin tingling or chills), sometimes along with piloerection (goose bumps), and mydriasis (pupil dilation).[2][3][4][5] The sensation commonly occurs as a mildly to moderately pleasurable emotional response to music with skin tingling;[2] piloerection, and pupil dilation do not necessarily occur in all cases.[4][5] The psychological component (i.e., the pleasurable feeling) and physiological components (i.e., parasthesia, piloerection, and pupil dilation) of the response are mediated by the reward system and sympathetic nervous system, respectively.[4][5] The stimuli that produce this response are unique to each individual.
Frisson is of short duration, lasting only a few seconds.[6] Typical stimuli include loud passages of music and passages—such as appoggiaturas and sudden modulation—that violate some level of musical expectation. During a frisson, a sensation of chills or tingling felt on the skin of the lower back, shoulders, neck, and/or arms.[5][6] The sensation of chills is sometimes experienced as a series of 'waves' moving up the back in rapid succession and commonly described as "shivers up the spine".[4][6] Hair follicles may also undergo piloerection.[4][5][6]
Neuroimaging studies have found that the intensity of tingling is positively correlated with the magnitude of brain activity in specific regions of the reward system, including the nucleus accumbens, orbitofrontal cortex, and insular cortex.[4][5] All three of these brain structures are known to contain a hedonic hotspot, a region of the brain that is responsible for producing pleasure cognition.[8][9][10]
8. Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015). "Pleasure systems in the brain". Neuron. 86 (3): 646–664
9. Richard JM, Castro DC, Difeliceantonio AG, Robinson MJ, Berridge KC (November 2013). "Mapping brain circuits of reward and motivation: in the footsteps of Ann Kelley". Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 37 (9 Pt A): 1919–1931.Figure 3: Neural circuits underlying motivated 'wanting' and hedonic 'liking'.
10. Castro, DC; Berridge, KC (24 October 2017). "Opioid and orexin hedonic hotspots in rat orbitofrontal cortex and insula". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 114 (43): E9125–E9134.
Since music-induced euphoria can occur without the sensation of tingling or piloerection,[5] the authors of one review hypothesized that the emotional response to music during a frisson evokes a sympathetic response that is experienced as a tingling sensation.[5]
1. "Why Do Only Some People Get 'Skin Orgasms' From Listening to Music?". Neuroscience News. 29 September 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
2. Harrison L, Loui P (2014). "Thrills, chills, frissons, and skin orgasms: toward an integrative model of transcendent psychophysiological experiences in music".Fron in Psychology. 5: 790.
3. Colver MC, El-Alayli A (May 2016). "Getting aesthetic chills from music: The connection between openness to experience and frisson". Frontiers in Psychology. 44 (3): 413–427.
4. Mori K, Iwanaga M (April 2017). "Two types of peak emotional responses to music: The psychophysiology of chills and tears". Scientific Reports. 7: 46063
5. Tihanyi BT, Ferentzi E, Beissner F, Köteles F (February 2018). "The neuropsychophysiology of tingling". Consciousness and Cognition. 58: 97–110
Listening to emotionally moving music is the most common trigger of frisson, chill run up your spine, goosebumps tickle your arms and shoulders, “skin orgasm.”Mitchell Colver Ph.D., while working in the lab of Dr. Amani El-Alayli, a professor of Social Psychology at East Washington Univ, decided to find what causes a thrill, followed by a chill.Scientists are investigating this phenomenon, the origins of frisson and emotional reactions to unexpected stimuli in our environment, particularly music.Musical passages that include unexpected harmonies, sudden changes in volume or the moving entrance of a soloist are particularly common triggers for frisson because they violate listeners’ expectations in a positive way, similar to the 2009 debut performance of Susan Boyle on “Britain’s Got Talent.” Totally unexpected.
Some scientists have suggested that goosebumps are an evolutionary holdover from our early (hairier) ancestors, who kept themselves warm through an endothermic layer of heat that they retained immediately beneath the hairs of their skin.
Experiencing goosebumps after a rapid change in temperature (like being exposed to an unexpectedly cool breeze on a sunny day) temporarily raises and then lowers those hairs, resetting this layer of warmth.To test this hypothesis, participants were wired up to an instrument that measures galvanic skin response, a measure of how the electrical resistance of people’s skin changes when they become physiologically aroused. Participants were then invited to listen to several pieces of music as lab assistants monitored their responses to the music in real time.Emotional aroused by the music was examined. In this case, each of these peaks of excitement coincided with the participant reporting experiencing frisson in reaction to the music. Listeners who experienced frisson also scored high for a personality. People who possess this trait have unusually active imaginations, appreciate beauty and nature, seek out new experiences, often reflect deeply on their feelings, and love variety in life. Some aspects of this trait are inherently emotional (loving variety, appreciating beauty), and others are cognitive (imagination, intellectual curiosity). An innate behavior. Researchers had concluded that listeners were experiencing frisson as a result of a deeply emotional reaction they were having to the music.
These findings, recently published in the journal Psychology of Music, indicate that those who intellectually immerse themselves in music (rather than just letting it flow over them) might experience frisson more often and more intensely than others. [Why do only some people get ‘skin orgasms’ from listening to music? Mitchell Colver Ph.D. Student in Education, Utah State University, May 24, 2016, Many can identify with the phenomenon of feeling a thrill – followed by a chill – when listening to a particularly moving piece of music.]The Roles of piloerection are complicated. The insulating properties of the primate integument are influenced by many factors, including piloerection, which raises the hair and insulates the body by creating motionless air near the skin's surface. The involuntary muscles that control piloerection, the musculi arrectores pilorum (MAP), are mostly absent except on the tail in most strepsirhines, and are entirely absent in tarsiers and some lorisids. The absence of piloerection and the reduced effectiveness of pillory insulation in preventing heat loss affected the evolution of behavior and metabolic thermoregulation in these animals and the evolution of a wide variety of activity patterns and energy-conserving metabolic patterns such as cathemerality, daily behavior, which food acquisition, socializing with other organisms necessary for livelihood, and hibernation.
The absence of functional MAP implies the absence of effective piloerection in early primates, and the reacquisition of whole-body MAP in ancestral anthropoids prior to the separation of platyrrhine and catarrhine lineages.In primates, thermoregulation affects behavior and activity levels [Hill et al., 2004; Jablonski et al., 2009], and the requirements of temperature regulation determine dietary caloric requirements and, thus, niche and resource utilization. Primates, like other mammals, regulate body temperature through changes in physiology, morphology, and behavior. Large mammals have smaller surface areas relative to their mass, greater energy reserves as fat, and can have longer coats of hair or fur for insulation. Smaller mammals have larger surface areas relative to their mass, can accommodate only minor energy reserves as stored fat, and cannot grow long coats for insulation. In order to maintain thermal homeostasis, small mammals maintain high rates of activity and food intake. [Tattersall, 1987; Curtis, 2006]. The earliest primates evolved with these conditions.
For most mammals, piloerection is a common method of modifying heat exchange. It is caused by the contraction of the musculi arrectores pilorum or MAP, which are bodies of smooth muscle that extend from the fibrils of the dermis into connective tissue investment of the hair follicle. Innervation to the MAP is supplied by the sympathetic nervous system, and contraction of the muscles is involuntary.[Cymbaluk, 1994] [Herrington, 1951].
The presence of MAP and piloerection is the ancestral condition for Euarchontaglires [comprising Glires (Rodentia and Lagomorpha) and Euarchonta (Dermoptera, Scandentia, and Primates)]. Primates and many other mammals underwent dramatic evolution and widespread dispersal during the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum (PETM) [Lucas, 1998; Storey et al., 2007; Beard, 2008; O'Leary et al., 2013]. Early primates have been found at a wide range of latitudes including far northern sites in Great Britain and Germany, to northern and central China and the northern Great Plains; they were also widespread at equatorial latitudes in Africa [Covert, 2002; Ni et al., 2007].
For early primates, the probable absence of functioning MAP except on the tail meant that the roles played by piloerection and pilary insulation in thermoregulation were minimal and that alterations in metabolism and behavior were used instead to maintain thermal homeostasis. Small mammals realize less benefit from piloerection than large mammals, but the absence of any potential for automatic adjustments to the loft of the hair coat in relation to temperature would have meant the evolution of compensatory modes of thermoregulation, including changes in activity patterns, modifications of metabolism, and development of postural and social behaviors favoring conservation of body heat. Many small primates consume diets of high-quality, calorie-dense foods such as insects and gums to maximize metabolic output. [Muller, 1985; Morland, 1993; Donati and Borgognini-Tarli, 2006; Snodgrass et al., 2007].
The evolution of functional, whole-body MAP can thus be seen as a necessary precursor to the development of large-bodied highly encephalized, diurnal primates. [The Role of Piloerection in Primate Thermoregulation Chaplin G.a, c · Jablonski N.G.a, c · Sussman R.W.b · Kelley E.A.b Folia Primatol 2014;85:1-17]
Willey Minnix is a music teacher, who constantly amazing people who previously had no musical experience, by showing them they can play music, if they use the “magic” pentatonic scale. It never ceases to impress new students who walk away with the tools needed to figureout, literally, thousands of tunes that are based off of these scales.Engraving from Renaissance Italy (Gafurius's Practica musice, 1496) showing Apollo, the Muses, the planetary spheres and musical ratios. ( Public Domain )So what is the pentatonic scale? There are actually five Pentatonic Scales. The easiest way to find the pentatonic scale is to find a piano and begin playing the black notes.
If you were to start at middle C in the center of the piano, and play each of the black notes that follow, you would play in order: D♭-E♭-G♭-A♭-B♭. If you wanted to start at a different note each time you played the scale, you would play five different scales.
First by starting with D♭, then the second time through starting off on E♭, then G♭, then A♭, and then finally using the scale that starts with B♭: B♭-D♭-E♭- G♭-A♭.
- If you wanted to play these in the key of C you would get the following scales:
- Minor Pentatonic – A, C, D, E, G
- Major Pentatonic – C, D, E, G, A
- Suspended Pentatonic (a.k.a. the Egyptian Pentatonic) – D, E, G, A, C
- The Blues Minor Pentatonic (a.k.a. the Man Gong pentatonic) – E, G, A, C, D
- The Blues Major Pentatonic (a.k.a. the Ritusen pentatonic) – G, A, C, D, E
- Modern Day Instrument
In conclusion, the bone flutes of the ancient cave dwellers in the Swabian Mountains stumbled upon a tuning system that has persisted down to this day, and still delights people from all backgrounds who love music. If you would like to hear a sample of how this flute sounds, you can hear one of the original members of the initial excavation team discuss both the mammoth ivory and the bird bone flutes that were discovered there.The bone flute discussed in the video is made from the radius bone of a vulture. The mouth piece functions more like blowing across a bottle, which gives it a sound very similar to blowing across a bottle. As you can see in the video, popular songs that many people will recognize are easily played on pentatonic tuned instruments.The Music of the Maya: Mysterious whistles Confound Experts 4,500-Year-Old Burial Suggests Norte Chico People of Peru Practiced Gender Equality.Plato and his Hidden Music Code. Bone flutes are not the only types of instruments that display this unique and mysterious pentatonic relationship between tones, however, there are many other instruments that I hope to share with you in future articles.Featured image: Two bone flutes.
- Source: ( CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 ) By Willy Minnix
- References
- Ø Theflutemaker. "Ice Age Flute." YouTube. YouTube, 05 Aug. 2009. Web. 27 Apr. 2016.
- Ø March of the titans. "The World's Oldest Musical Instrument (40000, BCE) Mammoth Ivory and Bird Bone Flutes Germany." Youtube. Youtube, 9 June 2014. Web.
- Ø How Music Works: Melody . By Howard Goodall. Perf. Howard Goodall. BBC, 2006. Web.
- Ø Clarchaeology. "Replicating a Neanderthal Bone Flute." YouTube. YouTube, 25 Nov. 2012. Web. 27 Apr. 2016.
- Ø Channel, Cctvupload. "Stone Age Bone Flute in 6500 BC." Https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7c_dg1XSUvg. Youtube, 16 Sept. 2008. Web.
- Ø "The Pythagorean Theory of Music and Color." Http://www.sacred-texts.com/eso/sta/sta19.htm. Secret Teachings, n.d. Web.
- Ø "Pythagorean Tuning." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2016.
- Ø "Pythagorean Scale." Pythagorean Scale . http://www.phy.mtu.edu/~suits/pythagorean.html, n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2016.
- Ø "Pentatonic Scale." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2016.
- [The Mystical Pentatonic Scale and Ancient Instruments, Part I: Bone Flutes, Willey Minnix, 4 May 2016, Ancient Origins]
Scientists believe music predated human beings. Pictured are 4,000 to 53,000 year old flutes [by Jelle Atema]Similarities between the music of humans and other animals suggest that music has been around longer than human language, and maybe even longer than humans, say US researchers.Patricia M. Gray of the National Academy of Sciences in Washington and colleagues have published an analysis of the similarities between the music of humans, whales and birds in Science.
"The roots of music lie closer to our ancient lizard brain than to our more recent reasoning cortex," they said.Gray and colleagues document that whale song has a similar structure to human song, using repetition, similar rhythms, intervals, phrase and song durations, and pleasant tones, not just arrhythmic and non-repeating tunes using 'unpleasant' roars, stutters and grunts."The fact that whale and human music have so much in common even though our evolutionary paths have not intersected for 60 million years, suggests that music may predate humans. “Rather than the inventors of music, humans are the latecomers to the musical scene," write Gray and colleagues.Bird songs too had fascinating parallels with human music - one bird song even sounds like the opening of Chopin's "Revolutionary" Etude.Some birds sing Western music scales, others sing pentatonic scales, five different tones within the octave; common in African and Eastern music.
"There are interval inversions, simple harmonic relations, and retention of melody with change of key," write the researchers. "Many birds transpose motifs to different keys." Some birds also practice "call and response" song patterns - a technique often used in gospel music. The Californian marsh wren, for example, may sing as many as 120 different themes in a fixed sequence while a neighbour responds identically to each theme.
Human music dates back to flutes which demonstrate that Neanderthal civilizations devoted considerable time and skill to constructing complicated musical instruments."Given the sophistication of these 50,000-year-old instruments, it is quite possible that humans have been making music for several hundred thousand years," write Gray and colleagues."Human music-making may vary dramatically between cultures, but the fact that it is found in all culturessuggests that there is a deep human need to create, perform, and listen to music," theresearchers write. "If it is as ancient as some believe, this could explain why we find so muchmeaning and emotion in music even though we cannot explain why it makes us feel theway it does." [Music may predate humans, 8 Jan 2001 Anna Salleh - ABC Science Online
Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Modern Anatomical Humans went from grunting to gabbing, but anatomical adaptations were necessary as humans evolved. Human throats got longer and our mouths got smaller,physiological changes that enabled humans to effectively shape and control sound. According to fossils, the first humans who had an anatomy capable of speech patternsappeared about 50,000 years ago.Most humans do it every day without even thinking about it, yet talking is a uniquely human ability. Not only do humans have evolved brains that process and produce language and syntax, but we also can make a range of sounds and tones that we use to form hundreds of thousands of words.
To make these sounds -- and talk -- humans use the same basic apparatus that chimps have: lungs, throat, voice box, tongue and lips. But we're the ones singing opera and talking on the phone. That is because over thousands of years, humans have evolved a longer throat and smaller mouth better suited for shaping sound.Humans have flexibility in the mouth, tongue and lips that lets us form a wide range of precise sounds that chimps simply can't produce, and some have developed this complex voice instrument more than others. Take opera tenor Gran Wilson. He can sing because of his exceptional control of the Rube Goldberg-like apparatus that makes speech -- from lungs to larynx to lips. It works like this: When we talk or sing, we release controlled puffs of air from our lungs through our larynx, or voice box. The larynx is about the size of a walnut. In men, you can see it -- it's the Adam's apple. It's mostly made up of cartilage and muscle.
Stretched across the top are the vocal chords, which are two folds of mucous membrane. When we expel air from the lungs and push it through the larynx, the vocal chords vibrate, making the sound."The surface area of the chords that's actually vibrating is probably half of your smallestfingernail -- a very small amount of flesh buzzing," Wilson says Courtesy of Mike Gasser/Indiana UniversityHumans have flexibility in the mouth, tongue and lips that lets us form a wide range of precise sounds.The frequency of this buzzing is what gives sound the pitch. We change the pitch by tightening the vocal chords to make our voice higher and loosening them to make a lower sound.
"If you take a balloon and blow it up, you can manipulate the pitch by pulling the neck," Wilson says. The same principle applies to our vocal chords.The vibrating air gets made into a specific sound -- like an ee or ah or tuh or puh -- by how we shape our throat, mouth, tongue and lips. Fusing these sounds together to form words and sentences is a complex dance. It requires an enormous amount of fine motor control."Speech, by the way, is the most complex motor activity that any person acquires -- except [for] maybe violinists or acrobats. It takes about 10 years for children to get to the adult levels," says Dr. Philip Lieberman, a professor of cognitive and linguistic science at Brown University who has studied the evolution of speech for more than five decades.
Lieberman says that, looking back at human evolution, it's evident that after humans diverged from an early ape ancestor, the shape of the vocal tract changed. Over 100,000 years ago, the human mouth started getting smaller and protruding less. We developed a more flexible tongue that could be controlled more precisely, and a longer neck.The reason the neck started getting longer, Lieberman says, is that the tongue moved down, pulling the larynx lower, requiring more room for it all in the neck. "The first time we see human skulls -- fossils -- that have everything in place is about 50,000 years ago where the neck is long enough, the mouth is short enough, that they could have had a vocal tract like us," he says.But with these important changes came a new risk.
"The downside of this was that because you're pulling the larynx all the way down, when you eat, all the food has to go past the larynx -- and miss it -- and get into the esophagus," Lieberman says. "That's why people choke to death."So we evolved this crazy airway that allows us to choke to death more efficiently -- all to further our ability to make more sounds and speak.
These changes didn't evolve overnight, but it's hard to pinpoint when we moved beyond primitive grunts and started talking. Fossils can only tell us so much about the shape of the vocal tract because much of it is soft tissue. But we can see what the human vocal tract shape has allowed us to do that our primate relatives can't.From Primitive Parts, A Highly Evolved Human Brain. "[Humans] have a number of vowels, a number of consonants. A monkey will just say 'uh, uh, uh,' " says Lieberman, mimicking a monkey's breathy vocalizations.
Not only can humans make more sounds, but we also can control how we string them together.And that is because of our amazing and precise breath control.
Monkeys can't control their inhale and exhale the way we can -- they can only make short sounds a few seconds long before they have to take another breath.But we humans can control our breath to an astonishing degree, Lieberman says."One of the interesting things about speech -- and singing -- is we go through a very complicated process so that we have an even air pressure in our lungs," Lieberman says. Our lungs are like a set of balloons, he says. Except, unlike a balloon, which gets very low pressure when it's nearly deflated, we can control how quickly -- or slowly -- our lungs release air.
"When we talk, we first guess the length of the sentence we are going to produce," Lieberman says. "This is quite amazing -- and we hold back on the lungs with the muscles. And they have this complicated function whereas the lungs deflate, you hold back less and less and less. So you end up with a more or less even air pressure."If we didn't do that, the pitch would rapidly descend as we got to the end of the lung balloon, and we'd blow our vocal chords apart with high pressure.[From Grunting to Gabbing: Why Humans Can Talk by Kathleen Masterson, Aug 11, 2010 The Human Edge, NPR]
Neanderthals Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis[5] are an extinct species or subspecies of archaic humans in the genus Homo, who lived in Eurasia until 40,000 years ago.[6][7][8][9]Currently earliest fossils of Neanderthals in Europe are dated between 430,000 to 450,000 years ago, and thereafter Neanderthals expanded into Southwest and Central Asia. They are known from numerous fossils, as well as stone tool assemblages. Almost all assemblages younger than 160,000 years are of the so-called Mousterian techno-complex, which is characterized by tools made out of stone flakes.[10] The specimen is Neanderthal 1 was found in Neander Valley German Rhineland 1856.Compared to modern humans, Neanderthals were stockier, with shorter legs and bigger bodies. In conformance with Bergmann's rule, this likely was an adaptation to preserve heat in cold climates. Male and female Neanderthals had cranial capacities averaging 1,600 cm3 (98 cu in) and 1,300 cm3 (79 cu in), respectively,[11] within the range of the values for anatomically modern humans.[12]
Interbreeding between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans, Homo sapien, took place after recent "out of Africa" migration, likely between 60,000 and 40,000 years ago.[14]
In 2010, geneticists announced that interbreeding had likely taken place,[116][117] a result confirmed in 2012.[118][119][120] The genomes of all non-Africans include portions that are of Neanderthal origin,[121][122] a share estimated in 2014 to 1.5–2.1%.[123] This DNA is absent in Sub-Saharan Africans.[116] Ötzi the iceman, Europe's oldest preserved mummy, was found to possess an even higher percentage of Neanderthal ancestry.[124] The 2% of Neanderthal DNA in Europeans and Asians is not the same in all Europeans and Asians: in all, approximately 20% of the Neanderthal genome appears to survive in the modern human gene pool.[125]2012 genetic studies seem to suggest that modern humans may have mated with "at least two groups" of archaic humans: Neanderthals and Denisovans.[126] John D. Hawks has argued that the genetic similarity to Neanderthals may indeed be the result of both structure and interbreeding, as opposed to just one or the other.[130]An approximately 40,000 year old anatomically-modern human skeleton from Peștera cu Oase, Romania, was found in 2015 to have a much larger proportion of DNA matching the Neanderthal genome than seen in humans of today, and this was estimated to have resulted from an inbreeding event as few as four generations earlier. However, this hybrid Romania population does not appear to have made a substantial contribution to the genomes of later Europeans.[131][132]
While some modern human nuclear DNA has been linked to the extinct Neanderthals, no mitochondrial DNA of Neanderthal origin has been detected,[15] which in primates is always maternally transmitted. This observation has prompted the hypothesis that whereas female humans interbreeding with male Neanderthals were able to generate fertile offspring, the progeny of female Neanderthals who mated with male humans were either rare, absent or sterile.[133]When Neanderthal ancestors left Africa potentially as early as over 800,000 years ago they adapted to the pathogens in their European environment, unlike modern humans who adapted to African pathogens. Transcontinental movement known as the Out of Africa model.
> Sánchez-Quinto, F; Botigué, LR; Civit, S; Arenas, C; Avila-Arcos, MC; Bustamante, CD; Comas, D; Lalueza-Fox, C (October 17, 2012). "North African Populations Carry the Signature of Admixture with Neandertals". PLOS One. 7(10): e47765. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...747765S. May 29, 2016.
> Fu, Q; Li, H; Moorjani, P; Jay, F; Slepchenko, SM; Bondarev, AA; Johnson, PL; Aximu-Petri, A; Prüfer, K; de Filippo, C; Meyer, M; Zwyns, N; Salazar-García, DC; Kuzmin, YV; Keates, SG; Kosintsev, PA; Razhev, DI; Richards, MP; Peristov, NV; Lachmann, M; Douka, K; Higham, TF; Slatkin, M; Hublin, JJ; Reich, D; Kelso, J; Viola, TB; Pääbo, S (October 23, 2014). "Genome sequence of a 45,000-year-old modern human from western Siberia". Nature. 514(7523): 445-49. Bibcode:2014Natur.514..445F.
> Brahic, Catherine. "Humanity's forgotten return to Africa revealed in DNA", The New Scientist (February 3, 2014).
>Yang, M.A.; Malaspinas, A.S.; Durand, E.Y.; Slatkin, M. (2012). "Ancient Structure in Africa Unlikely to Explain Neanderthal and Non-African Genetic Similarity". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 29 (10): 2987–95. Liu, Prugnolle et al. (2006).
"Currently available genetic and archaeological evidence is supportive of a recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa. However, this is where the consensus on human settlement history ends, and considerable uncertainty clouds any more detailed aspect of human colonization history."110. Stringer, Chris (June 2003). "Human evolution: Out of Ethiopia Nature. 423(6941): 692–93, 695. Bibcode:2003Natur.423.692S.
“While it is generally agreed that Africa was the homeland of our earliest human ancestors, Homo sapien-sapiens species, a debate continues about language, art and complex technologyHowever, Neanderthal fossil DNA findings during the Homo sapien-sapiens period is significant. [The Origin of Our Species Paperback, May 31, 2012 by Chris Stringer]A Vulture Bone Flute discovered in a European cave is likely the world's oldest recognizable musical instrument and pushes back humanity's musical roots, a new study says. Found with fragments of mammoth-ivory flutes, the 40,000-year-old artifact also adds to evidence that music may have given the first European modern humans a strategic advantage over Neanderthals, researchers say.The bone-flute pieces were found in 2008 at Hohle Fels, a Stone Age cave in southern Germany, according to the study, led by archaeologist Nicholas Conard of the University of Tübingen in Germany.
With five finger holes and a V-shaped mouthpiece, the almost complete bird-bone flute—made from the naturally hollow wing bone of a griffon vulture—is just 0.3 inch (8 millimeters) wide and was originally about 13 inches (34 centimeters) long.Flute fragments found earlier at the nearby site of Geissenklösterle have been dated to around 35,000 years ago. [Bone Flute Is Oldest Instrument, Study Says. The discovery pushes back humanity's musical roots, by James Owen June 24, 2009, Culture and History, National Geographic]
“For most researchers to day the term ‘African Music; refers to musical practices of the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa. African Music in an extended sense includes dance included in the same cultural compels.Further ramifications of of African Music/Dance reveals that African languages are closely related. Polyrhythmic music and dance is quintessentially African, particularly Niger-Congo societies, especially Bantu.This had a ”enormous impact on modern Western popular music and dance because of the African slaves trade mostly Niger-Congo in background. Outside NC stringed instruments and different dance prevail”Malcolm Guthrie’s Zone K, Group 10, musical culture of special note on Joseph Greenberg’s classification of African Languages. Signaling and talking Bells and drums were other ancient forms of communication. [Theory of African Music by Gerhard Kubik, University of Chicago Press, Oct 30, 2010 - History - 464 pages]
“The adaptation of parallelism to fit melodic requirements is much more apparent in the music of those areas of Africa where the pentatonic scale is the norm. Kirby has shown how the demands of a pentatonic scale result in the employment of sixths in Bantu polyphony, where parallelism in fifths is the principle. He points out that the limitations of the pentatonic scale make for the awareness of other intervals instead of what apparently was the strict duplication of the melody at the same interval employed by early European musicians."—Lazarus Ekweme[6]
References:
- Karlton E. Hester, Bigotry and the Afrocentric “Jazz” Evolution, Third Edition, Global academic publishing, published, April 30, 2004
- Gerhard Kubik, Theory of African music, volume I, University of Chicago Press, Lid., London, published 1994
- Gerhard Kubik, Theory of African music, volume II, University of Chicago Press, Lid., London, published 2010
- Gerhard Kubik, Bebop: a case in point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices. Black Music Research Journal, published March 22, 2005
- Gerhard Kubik, Theory of African music, volume I, University of Chicago Press, Lid., London, published 1994Lazarus Ekwueme, Concepts of African musical theory, Journal of Black Studies, Vol 5. no. 1, Sage publications, inc. published 1974.
- Gerhard Kubik, Theory of African music, volume I, University of Chicago Press, Lid., London, published 1994
- Lazarus Ekwueme, Concepts of African musical theory, Journal of Black Studies, Vol 5. no. 1, Sage publications, inc. published 1974.
- Simha Arom, African Polyphony and Polyrhythm. Structure and Methodology (Préface de Györgi Ligeti), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, published 2004 [1991].
- Oluwaseyi Kehinde, Dissonance and Chromatic Inflections in Traditional African Music, British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences ISSN 2046-9578, Vol. 3 No. 1, published 2011, British Journal Publishing, Inc. 2011
- Gerhard Kubik, Bebop: a case in point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices. Black Music Research Journal, published March 22, 2005
- Gerhard Kubik, Africa and the Blues, University of Mississippi Press, published 2000
- O. O. Bateye, Defining African Traditional Musical Traits: Resource Material for African Art Music Composition, Nigerian Music Review Vol. 6 2005: pp. 61–74
- Simha Arom, African Polyphony and Polyrhythm. Structure and Methodology (Préface de Györgi Ligeti), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, published 2004 [1991].
- Gerhard Kubik, Theory of African music, volume I, University of Chicago Press, Lid., London, published 1994
- Gerhard Kubik, Theory of African music, volume II, University of Chicago Press, Lid., London, published 2010
- Gerhard Kubik, Bebop: a case in point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices. Black Music Research Journal, published March 22, 2005
- Gerhard Kubik, Africa and the Blues, University of Mississippi Press, published 2000
- Lazarus Ekwueme, Concepts of African musical theory, Journal of Black Studies, Vol 5. no. 1, Sage publications, inc. published 1974.
- Lazarus Ekwueme, Concepts of African musical theory, Journal of Black Studies, Vol 5. no. 1, Sage publications, inc. published 1974.
- Lazarus Ekwueme, Concepts of African musical theory, Journal of Black Studies, Vol 5. no. 1, Sage publications, inc. published 1974.
- Simha Arom, African Polyphony and Polyrhythm. Structure and Methodology (Préface de Györgi Ligeti), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, published 2004 [1991].
- Gerhard Kubik, Bebop: a case in point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices. Black Music Research Journal, published March 22, 2005
- Gerhard Kubik, Africa and the Blues, University of Mississippi Press, published 2000
- Simha Arom, African Polyphony and Polyrhythm. Structure and Methodology (Préface de Györgi Ligeti), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, published 2004 [1991].
- Simha Arom, African Polyphony and Polyrhythm. Structure and Methodology (Préface de Györgi Ligeti), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, published 2004 [1991].
- David Locke, Improvisation in west African music, Music Educators Journal, Vol. 66, No. 5, Published b
